The Evolving Portrayal of Witches: A Journey Through Art, Literature, and Film

The figure of the witch has captivated human imagination for centuries, shapeshifting through various cultural landscapes from feared outcast to empowered icon. Across the realms of art, literature, and film, the portrayal of witches offers a fascinating lens into societal anxieties, evolving gender dynamics, and humanity’s enduring fascination with the supernatural. This report delves into the rich history of how witches have been depicted, examining famous and critically acclaimed works that have shaped our collective understanding of these enigmatic figures.

The Genesis of the Witch Archetype: Historical Roots and Societal Fears

The archetype of the witch is deeply embedded in historical fears and patriarchal societal structures. For hundreds of years, particularly during the early modern period (15th to 17th centuries), witchcraft was considered a serious criminal offence across Europe, punishable by imprisonment, pillory, or execution. This era saw approximately 90,000 people formally accused of witchcraft, with about half of them executed.  

The prevailing definition of a witch during this period was an individual who had made a pact with the devil in exchange for sinister supernatural powers, used to harm others. These individuals were widely feared and accused of committing heinous crimes. A striking aspect of these historical persecutions was the overwhelming gender bias; women constituted a significant majority of the accused. For instance, in England, an estimated 90% of those accused were women, a trend largely consistent across Western Europe, where figures ranged from 76% to over 95% in some regions.  

Those targeted were often social outsiders, including impoverished women, argumentative women, widows living alone, or individuals who had engaged in socially transgressive acts, such as having a child out of wedlock. This pattern suggests that accusations frequently served as a form of scapegoating, targeting those already disliked or distrusted within the community. Seminal texts like Heinrich Kramer’s 1487 Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer) further entrenched these misogynistic views, describing women as “chiefly addicted to Evil Superstitions” and blaming their perceived greed, credulous nature, feeble minds, and inherently evil dispositions for their supposed susceptibility to witchcraft.  

Over time, certain visual symbols became inextricably linked with the witch archetype. The broomstick, for example, gained prominence as a means of flight, while black cats were believed to be animal companions or “familiars”. Interestingly, some elements, such as green skin, are more modern additions, likely originating from the 1939 film version of The Wizard of Oz. This historical context is crucial for understanding the foundational imagery and thematic undercurrents that subsequent artistic, literary, and cinematic portrayals would either reinforce or subvert.  

Witches in Art: Visualising the Arcane and the Accused

The visual arts have long served as a powerful medium for exploring the witch archetype, reflecting prevailing beliefs and anxieties while also pushing artistic boundaries. Early European illustrations and woodcuts from the 1400s began to depict witches as demonic, often sexualised figures, frequently shown flying on broomsticks or riding backwards on goats, with these images sometimes linked to heretical groups like the Waldensians. The collective portrayal of witches in groups, such as Sabbaths, amplified the sense of threat they posed to the status quo.  

Renaissance and Baroque Depictions

During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, artists delved into the macabre and fantastical aspects of witchcraft:

• Frans Francken the Younger’s The Witches’ Sabbath (1607): This intricate oil painting offers a fantastical, Bosch-like scene of a witches’ gathering under a moonlit sky. Francken’s work often presented dualities, such as ugly versus beautiful witches, and naked versus clothed figures, suggesting how evil could infiltrate under the guise of beauty. The depiction of women huddled around a book in this painting can be interpreted as a warning against literate, independent women, reflecting societal fears of female autonomy. The dramatic use of light and dark further contributes to its mysterious and ominous atmosphere.  The Witches’ Sabbath is currently housed in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
• Salvator Rosa’s The Witches’ Sabbath (c. 1640-1649): Rosa, an early exponent of Romanticism, created an eerie and captivating portrayal of a mysterious gathering deep in the woods. His work often featured themes of black magic and the occult, reflecting the widespread fear of witches in religiously charged Europe. The prominent goat figure in his works is thought to represent the pagan Horned God, whose image later merged with the Christian concept of the Devil, thereby casting a shadow over pre-Christian pagan practices. Rosa’s interest in the supernatural was also evident in his satirical poem, La Strega (The Witch), which explored themes of revenge through sorcery.  
• Albrecht Dürer’s The Four Witches (1497): This engraving is notable for its ambiguity, with art historians debating whether it depicts witch hunting or figures from classical mythology. The presence of a skull and bone at their feet suggests magic and invocation, while a small burning devil reinforces the presence of evil. Unusually for the time, Dürer’s witches are depicted with classical beauty, contrasting with the common grotesque stereotype, and may represent goddesses like Hecate or Diana, or even an allegorical warning against discord. This work predates the major European witch-hunts, offering an earlier perspective on the visual image of the witch. A copy of The Four Witches can be found in the British Museum.

18th and 19th Century Interpretations

As societal beliefs about witchcraft evolved, so did its artistic representations:

• Francisco de Goya’s The Witches’ Flight (1797) and Witches’ Sabbath: Goya frequently used images of witchcraft to protest societal ills and critique the Spanish Inquisition’s superstition and paranoia. His Witches’ Flight depicts three semi-nude witches carrying a writhing nude figure, their mouths near him as if to devour or suck his blood, while figures below recoil in fear. Goya often chose to depict exclusively female witches in acts that subverted traditional roles, such as murdering infants, linking them to untamed female sexuality and a rejection of motherhood. This deliberate selection of female witches in his works highlights a patriarchal fear of women’s power when it challenges established order.  

• John William Waterhouse’s The Magic Circle (1886): In contrast to earlier, more sinister portrayals, Waterhouse’s Pre-Raphaelite painting features a mysterious, powerful female figure drawing a fiery magic circle for protection. She holds a crescent-shaped sickle, linking her to the moon and Hecate, and excludes symbols of evil like ravens and a frog from her enchanted space. Waterhouse chose to make the witch’s face “intent and intriguing,” rather than malevolent, reflecting a shift towards more complex and less overtly villainous depictions. The painting was highly successful with critics and the public alike upon its exhibition.  The Magic Circle is currently housed at the Tate Britain, London.

• Evelyn De Morgan’s The Love Potion (1903): This British Pre-Raphaelite painting depicts a witch with a black cat familiar, mixing a potion. De Morgan, a radical feminist and spiritualist, used this work to explore female authority through sorcery, portraying the witch not as a conventional sorceress but as a learned scholar surrounded by alchemy texts. The painting’s rich colour symbolism, based on alchemical theory, suggests an allegorical journey towards spiritual enlightenment, subverting traditional stereotypes of women and presenting a strong, intelligent protagonist.  

These artistic works collectively demonstrate how the visual representation of witches has evolved from symbols of pure evil and societal threat to more nuanced figures embodying power, rebellion, and even intellectual prowess. This evolution mirrors broader societal shifts in understanding and interpreting female agency.

Witches in Literature: Narratives of Power and Peril

Literature has been a primary battleground for the witch archetype, shaping perceptions from ancient myths to contemporary narratives.

Ancient to Early Modern Literary Figures

From antiquity, powerful female figures with magical abilities have populated stories:

• Ancient Greek Mythology: Figures like Hecate (goddess of witchcraft), Circe (a sorceress who transforms men into animals), and Medea (a sorceress princess) are early examples of women wielding supernatural power, often with dangerous consequences.

• William Shakespeare’s Macbeth (c. 1603-1607): The Three Witches, famously known as the “Weird Sisters,” are central to the play’s ominous tone and tragic plot. They act as agents of fate, delivering prophecies that ignite Macbeth’s ambition and ultimately lead to his downfall. Their portrayal reflects the contemporary belief in witches and King James I’s avid interest in the subject, as detailed in his Daemonologie. The witches’ “filthy” trappings and supernatural activities, combined with their ambiguous moral stance (“Fair is foul, and foul is fair”), create a sense of moral confusion that permeates the play. They are perceived as agents of the devil, subtly tempting Macbeth towards regicide, an act seen as directly contradicting God’s will.  

Modern Literary Reinterpretations

The 20th and 21st centuries have seen a significant shift in how witches are presented in literature, moving from clear-cut villains to complex characters reflecting social commentary and evolving feminist thought:

• Arthur Miller’s The Crucible (1953): Based on the historical Salem Witch Trials, Miller’s play uses the accusations of witchcraft to explore themes of mass hysteria, false accusations, and societal repression. Characters like Abigail Williams, a manipulative adolescent driven by jealousy and a lust for power, exploit the community’s fears to condemn innocent people. Tituba, an enslaved woman from Barbados, is one of the first accused, highlighting the vulnerability of social outsiders in such panics. The play serves as a powerful critique of how fear and religious dogma can be manipulated for personal gain.  

• Roald Dahl’s The Witches (1983): This dark fantasy novel introduces the Grand High Witch, a terrifying, child-hating antagonist disguised as an ordinary woman. The story explores themes of good versus evil, the importance of family bonds, and the dangers of judging by appearances. While controversial for its alleged misogyny, the novel also presents strong and distinctive female characters, challenging traditional notions of evil. Dahl’s emphasis on the witches’ grotesque true forms hidden beneath a beautiful facade underscores the theme of deceit and hidden menace.  
• John Updike’s The Witches of Eastwick (1984): This novel portrays three divorcées who discover and explore their magical powers as a form of women’s liberation. Updike described his novel as “about female power, a power that patriarchal societies have denied,” and it has been viewed as an “intelligent engagement with feminism”. The narrative blends magical realism with social commentary, exploring themes of empowerment, rebellion against societal norms, and the moral ambiguities that arise from wielding power. Despite its pro-feminist undertones, some critics have found its portrayal of female characters to fall into stereotypes.  
• Alice Hoffman’s Practical Magic (1995): This novel follows the Owens sisters, Sally and Gillian, descendants of a long line of witches, as they navigate love, loss, and their magical heritage. The story weaves themes of family bonds, resilience, and female empowerment, blending fantastical elements with the realities of life. The Owens family’s ostracisation by their community, despite their occasional help with love spells, highlights the societal prejudice against those who are different. The narrative explores the struggle between embracing one’s true self and conforming to societal expectations.  
• Gregory Maguire’s Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (1995): This revisionist novel reimagines the Wicked Witch of the West (Elphaba) from The Wizard of Oz, offering a sympathetic backstory. Maguire explores the nature of evil, societal ostracisation (due to Elphaba’s green skin), and the impact of propaganda. The novel challenges the simplistic good-vs-evil dichotomy, suggesting that Elphaba’s “wickedness” is largely a product of societal perceptions and circumstances. It delves into themes of identity, social justice, and the struggle against oppressive systems.  
• J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter Series (1997-2007): This globally acclaimed series significantly transformed the popular view of witchcraft, making it appealing to a broad audience. In Rowling’s universe, witches and wizards are born with magical abilities, and magic is presented as a neutral instrument, capable of being used for both good and evil. Crucially, the series depicts magic as equally accessible to all genders, directly challenging the historical stigma that witchcraft was predominantly a female art associated with evil, as propagated by texts like Malleus Maleficarum. This approach fostered a more inclusive perception of magic and its practitioners.  
• Maryse Condé’s I, Tituba, Black Witch of Salem (1992): This historical novel reimagines the life of Tituba, one of the first individuals accused in the Salem Witch Trials, from a non-white perspective. Condé’s work critiques historical narratives, exposing ingrained racism and sexism within American society. The novel portrays Tituba as a resilient heroine who, despite being subjected to discrimination and oppression, uses her traditional healing and magical practices (obeah) to help others. It highlights the devastating impact of patriarchy, particularly from white men, on women like Tituba.  
• Deborah Harkness’s A Discovery of Witches (2011): This novel blends history, fantasy, and romance, following Diana Bishop, an academic who discovers her powerful witch heritage. The narrative explores themes of identity, power, love, and the coexistence of supernatural creatures with humans, drawing heavily on historical and alchemical sources. While praised for its intelligence and detailed historical references, some critics have noted slow pacing and problematic portrayals of female relationships, particularly Diana’s submission to a male vampire.  

The literary landscape demonstrates a profound shift from portraying witches as purely malevolent figures to complex characters who embody societal struggles, feminist ideals, and the exploration of power, identity, and morality.

Witches on Film: Cinematic Transformations and Cultural Reflections

Film, as a powerful visual medium, has played a crucial role in disseminating and reinterpreting the witch archetype, adapting literary and folkloric traditions while introducing new visual and narrative conventions.

Early and Classic Hollywood Portrayals

Early cinema introduced the witch character, often drawing from existing literary sources:

• The Witch (1908): Considered the first Hollywood film to feature a witch character or the theme of witchcraft, this silent film was based on Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, depicting a trial for witchcraft.

• The Wizard of Oz (1939): This iconic film solidified the visual dichotomy of good and evil witches. Margaret Hamilton’s Wicked Witch of the West, with her green skin, became a quintessential villain, while Glinda the Good Witch embodied benevolent magic. The film’s groundbreaking use of Technicolor visually reinforced these characterisations, with Glinda’s ethereal glow contrasting sharply with the Wicked Witch’s shadowy lighting. This clear-cut good-vs-evil dynamic would later be reinterpreted in works like Wicked.  
• I Married a Witch (1942) & Bell, Book & Candle (1958): These romantic comedies presented witches in a more glamorous and farcical light, using magic for comedic effect and portraying them as alluring figures rather than terrifying hags. Veronica Lake’s effortless charm in I Married a Witch exemplifies this shift towards a more appealing witch figure.  

Horror and Dark Fantasy: Nuance and Subversion

From the mid-20th century onwards, films began to explore more complex and often darker facets of witchcraft, mirroring societal anxieties and evolving views on female power:

• Rosemary’s Baby (1968): This psychological horror film delves into occult themes and a Satanic cult, portraying witches not as stereotypical crones but as seemingly ordinary, respectable individuals in a modern urban setting. The film’s subtle, creeping horror and ambiguity regarding the supernatural, combined with its critique of religious and societal norms, made it a significant work. It highlights a pervasive fear of the occult and the vulnerability of women within patriarchal structures.  
• Suspiria (1977): Dario Argento’s cult horror classic tells the story of a ballet student who uncovers an ancient witch coven within her dance academy. The film is renowned for its highly stylised visuals, particularly its vivid use of primary colours (reds and blues) and innovative sound design, which create a dream-like, disorienting, and terrifying atmosphere. The witches are depicted as malevolent and destructive figures, yet the film also touches on themes of female empowerment and the ambiguous power of mothers.

• The Witches (1990): Based on Roald Dahl’s novel, this film features Anjelica Huston’s critically acclaimed portrayal of the Grand High Witch, a terrifying, child-hating figure. The film’s dark wit, imaginative narrative, and Jim Henson’s special effects (using puppets and makeup rather than CGI) contributed to its genuinely unsettling and memorable imagery. Despite being marketed to children, its disturbing elements sparked controversy, reflecting Dahl’s own macabre vision.  
• Hocus Pocus (1993): This film, initially a box-office bomb, gained a significant cult following, becoming a Halloween staple. It features the Sanderson Sisters, a trio of comedic yet sinister witches, and blends campy horror with themes of female empowerment and sisterhood. Much of its appeal lies in the sisters’ dysfunctional dynamics and their humorous attempts to adapt to modern life. The film’s focus on female characters banding together against an abuser is a compelling aspect.  
• The Craft (1996): This film resonated strongly with young female audiences, becoming a cult classic for its exploration of teenage witches and themes of sisterhood and empowerment. It portrays a group of marginalised girls who use witchcraft to fight oppression, including racism and sexism, and to gain control over their lives. The film delves into the dangerous allure of power and the consequences when female friendships turn sour.  
• Practical Magic (1998): Adapted from Alice Hoffman’s novel, this film focuses on the Owens sisters, who come from a long line of witches cursed in love. While initially receiving mixed reviews for its jarring tonal shifts (supernatural fantasy, domestic abuse drama, romantic comedy), it has since gained a cult following for its cast, soundtrack, and strong feminist themes. The film highlights the enduring bonds of sisterhood and the societal prejudice faced by women who defy conventional lifestyles. It uses the history of witchcraft to illustrate how women are often punished for being different or for the downfall of men in their lives.  
• The Blair Witch Project (1999): This film popularised the “found footage” cinematic technique, presenting a psychological horror experience where the witch is an unseen, ambiguous threat. Its innovative marketing campaign, which suggested the footage was real, contributed to its significant cultural impact. The film’s effectiveness lies in its ability to create dread through suggestive sounds and the characters’ descent into paranoia, rather than explicit visuals of the witch.  
• The Witch (2015): Set in 1630s New England, this film offers a historically authentic and disturbing portrayal of a Puritan family tormented by an evil presence in the woods. The film’s main antagonist is revealed to be Black Phillip, a goat who is Satan in disguise, leading the eldest daughter, Thomasin, to embrace the witch label and “live deliciously”. The film uses minimal special effects, relying on atmospheric dread, natural lighting, and archaic dialogue to immerse the viewer in the period’s superstitions and the family’s psychological breakdown. It explores themes of religious paranoia, temptation, and female agency in a repressive environment.  

Cinematic portrayals of witches have evolved from simple villains to complex figures, reflecting and shaping cultural perceptions of female power, rebellion, and the supernatural. Filmmakers have employed diverse techniques, from elaborate visual spectacles to minimalist found footage, to evoke specific moods and explore varied thematic depths.

Evolution of the Archetype: From Feared Hag to Empowered Figure

The journey of the witch archetype across art, literature, and film reveals a profound transformation, moving from a universally feared and persecuted figure to a complex, often empowered, and even heroic symbol. Historically, the witch was intrinsically tied to negative connotations, largely due to patriarchal societies demonising female power and independence. The image of the “old, haggard, ugly” witch, often associated with dark magic and a pact with the devil, was a tool of social control, enforcing conformity and punishing transgressive women.  

However, as societies evolved, so did the interpretations of the witch. The 19th and 20th centuries saw a gradual shift, particularly with the rise of feminist discourse. Artists and writers began to reclaim the witch, transforming her into a figure of resistance and self-definition, unbound by traditional patriarchal narratives. This reinterpretation often presented the witch as a symbol of female authority, wisdom, and the ability to challenge the status quo.  

In literature and film, this evolution is evident in the move from purely villainous portrayals (e.g., Shakespeare’s Three Witches, Dahl’s Grand High Witch) to more nuanced characters who, while still possessing immense power, use it for complex motivations, including personal liberation, protection of family, or fighting injustice (e.g., the Owens sisters in Practical Magic, Elphaba in Wicked, the coven in The Craft). The Harry Potter series, for instance, played a significant role in normalising magic and presenting it as accessible to all genders, challenging the historical stigma of witchcraft as inherently evil or exclusively female.  

The modern witch often embodies themes of self-acceptance, rebellion against societal expectations, and the reclaiming of agency. This reflects a growing cultural desire for empowered female figures who are not defined by traditional roles or constrained by external judgment. The enduring fascination with witches, therefore, is not merely about the supernatural, but about the symbolic power these figures hold in mirroring our own evolving understanding of power, gender, and societal control.  

The Final Word

The multifaceted portrayal of witches across art, literature, and film offers a compelling narrative of cultural evolution. From the terrifying, demonised figures of historical persecution and early artistic depictions to the complex, often sympathetic, and even heroic characters of modern media, the witch archetype has consistently reflected and shaped societal perceptions.

Early works in art and literature, such as those by Francken, Rosa, Dürer, and Shakespeare, largely mirrored the prevailing fears and misogynistic beliefs of their times, depicting witches as agents of evil, often linked to the devil and seen as a threat to established order. The Salem Witch Trials, as dramatised in The Crucible, further underscored the dangers of mass hysteria and the scapegoating of marginalised individuals.

However, as centuries progressed, a profound transformation began. Artists like Goya started using the witch figure for social critique, while later Pre-Raphaelite and Symbolist painters like Waterhouse and De Morgan introduced more mysterious, intellectual, and less overtly malevolent interpretations. In literature, authors like Updike, Hoffman, Maguire, and Rowling have reimagined witches as symbols of female empowerment, rebellion, and complex morality, challenging simplistic good-vs-evil narratives.

Film has amplified these shifts, moving from the clear-cut villains of classic Hollywood to the nuanced, psychologically driven, and often relatable witches seen in contemporary horror and fantasy. Cinematic techniques have evolved to evoke specific moods and deeper thematic explorations, from the atmospheric dread of The Witch (2015) to the found-footage realism of The Blair Witch Project.

Ultimately, the enduring presence of witches in popular culture signifies more than just a fascination with magic; it represents a continuous re-evaluation of power dynamics, gender roles, and the boundaries of societal acceptance. The witch, in her myriad forms, remains a potent cultural construct, offering a rich tapestry through which to explore humanity’s deepest fears and its most aspirational desires for autonomy and strength.